Functional Grammar   Lesson 9

PRE-MODIFYING WORDS: DEICTICS

So far we have noted that there are different classes of words which may occur at "m", and which are subject to different chaining relationships, but we have not attempted a more precise description beyond the general classification "m". We have seen, however, that the number of words which may appear at "m" within a single nominal group is quite large. We shall now consider these words in more detail.

We have already noted that words like "the" precede the other classes of modifier. Words which may occur in this "slot" in the nominal group structure are called DEICTICS. (Remember that this refers to the set of paradigms, selection of one of which excludes the others e.g. "my", "this"). They are also known as determiners or "pointer words", so called because they function by "pointing" to something in the context. They may be referring back to something which has been mentioned, or forward to something which the speaker is going to say. Or they may indicate something which is inherent in the situational context.

e.g. (a) That one over there.
(b) That wasn't what I said.
(c) It was her fault.
 

In (a), "that" identifies the referent in terms of its proximity to the speaker;

in example (b) "that" refers to something mentioned previously, i.e. it is textual (note also that here "that" is a pronoun and therefore the headword);

in example (c) "her" refers to a person whose identity is known to the hearer and is also textual in that it refers back to a preceding point in the text when the individual was named.

As well as the definite and indefinite articles, other words which may occupy the deictic slot are demonstratives like "these" and "those", the various possessive forms such as "my", "John's" etc., and quantifiers such as "some", "every", "enough". Note that the possessive form of a common noun may follow a deictic. This can be interpreted as a rankshifted nominal group.

e.g. This government's great failure
---- deictic ----
Functional Systems

Some deictic words have a special relationship to the headword which distinguishes them from other classes of modifiers, namely the system of number or plurality. This relates to whether the nominal group headword may be classed as "countable" or "uncountable", and governs the selection of demonstratives and words like "all", "every", "another", "some", "either" etc (note that possessives are not governed by this system, and are in this respect unmarked).

A second system also operates in terms of which deictics are either NON-SPECIFIC or SPECIFIC in meaning. For instance, the contrast between "a" and "the" arises from this distinction, for the former is used in a general sense, since it does not identify its referent specifically, but means "an unspecified member of the class of things denoted by the headword", whereas the selection of "the" indicates that the referent is in some way known and can be assigned a particular identity. Thus if I say "an apple" this does not indicate which particular apple I am referring to, but if I say "the apple" this suggests that you know which apple I am talking about, either from its context or place in the text.

As well as the definite article, other specific deictics are the demonstrative and possessive pronouns, and other possessive forms (e.g. John's, his brother's).

Non-specific deictics include the indefinite article and other expressions of singularity (e.g. each, every, either); expressions of duality (e.g. both, neither); indefinite quantifiers (e.g. some, any, much); and expressions of totality (e.g. all).

 

e.g. I'll take this one - specific, countable, singular
Do you fancy another drink? - non-specific, countable, singular
Shall we take these copies? - specific, countable, plural
Would you like some wine? - non-specific, uncountable
Have some of my tobacco - specific, uncountable

This can also be represented as follows, where the systems operate simultaneously:-
 

wpe31.jpg (15551 bytes)

These systems occur simultaneously, and interact in a complex way. Given that we can identify three classes of noun headword, which may be uncountable, countable singular and countable plural, we can describe six functional classes of deictic.

These are:-

(i) occurring with any class of noun;
e.g. the, my, whose, some, any, no
(ii) occurring with uncountable or plural countable nouns only;
e.g. enough, zero article
(iii) occurring with uncountable or singular countable nouns only;
e.g. this, that
(iv) occurring with singular countable nouns only;
e.g. a, every, each, either
(v) occurring with plural countable nouns only;
e.g. these, those
(vi) occurring with uncountable nouns only;
e.g. much

* Some nouns are optionally countable or uncountable:-

e.g. I'd like two coffees.
Would you like any coffee?

In such cases the selection of deictic is still governed by whether such nouns function as countable or non-countable in each particular instance.

* Note also that the zero article does itself carry a deictic function, as in the above "I'd like two coffees". Compare with the following:
e.g. I'd like the two coffees.

The zero article is non-specific whereas the latter use of the definite article clearly identifies the referent - i.e. it says "you know which two coffees I am referring to".
 

Summary

We can say in summary that the function of the deictic element in the nominal group is to identify the headword in terms of its degree of specificity and the extent to which it is known to both speaker and hearer.

Specific deictics identify the referent demonstratively in terms of
(i) its proximity to the speaker (e.g. "this/that", "which/what");
(ii) in terms of its textual reference (e.g. "That's a good idea");
(iii) in terms of possession (e.g. Mary's book).
(iv) in terms of shared knowledge, as for example "the exam" means "you know which exam I am referring to".
Non-specific deictics indicate all, part, one or none of the class of thing which is represented by the headword, which is not more particularly identified textually or proximately to the speaker / hearer in any of the ways mentioned above. These also express polarity in terms of positive/negative.
e.g. all / none, some / any, either / neither
 

EXERCISES.

(1) Read the following passage and analyse the underlined nominal groups into "d m h q" structures ("d" = deictic). Are the deictic elements specific or non-specific? What do they indicate in terms of the information which the passage assumes that the reader already has? Identify any of these words which express a reference back in the text, and contrast the use of the indefinite and definite articles in the underlined groups, and consider whether alternatives could have been selected.

"It is vital to get to know your architect well. Look at photographs of houses he has designed, go for walks with him and discuss your likes and dislikes.
An architect likes to be brought in early in the project, preferably even before you have bought the site. He can make sure you do not spend too much on ground works or putting in services.
He will draw up a brief, which is a rough outline of what you want. Then the first sketches are penned. After negotiations with the planning department, detailed designs are prepared, other specialists such as engineers are lined up, and the architect prepares working drawings".

(2) A useful source of texts which may be suitable for illustrating and contrasting the use of the definite and indefinite articles is to be found in children's nursery rhymes. Below is a typical example.

Note how the two classes of article appear in the text, and distinguish their separate functions accordingly. Underline the instances where there is a reference back in the text. How would you explain the different functions of the articles in a text such as this?

Try and think of any other similar texts which you know which would also serve to demonstrate these functions clearly.

There was an old lady who swallowed a fly
I don't know why she swallowed a fly
Perhaps she'll die.
There was an old lady who swallowed a spider
That wriggled and tickled and tickled inside her
She swallowed the spider to catch the fly
I don't why she swallowed a fly
Perhaps she'll die.
There was an old lady who swallowed a bird
How absurd, to swallow a bird
She swallowed the bird to catch the spider
That wriggled and tickled and tickled inside her
She swallowed the spider to catch the fly
I don't know why she swallowed a fly
Perhaps she'll die.

There was an old lady who swallowed a cat
Fancy that, to swallow a cat
She swallowed the cat to catch the bird
How absurd, to swallow a bird
She swallowed the bird to catch the spider
That wriggled and tickled and tickled inside her
She swallowed the spider to catch the fly
I don't know why she swallowed a fly
Perhaps she'll die.

** SUGGESTED READING.

Leech & Svartvik, "A Communicative Grammar of English", sections 550 - 567, pages 225 - 230; sections 87 - 90, page 58.

Sinclair J, "A Course in Spoken English: Grammar", section 19, pages 149 - 157.

Quirk & Greenbaum, "A University Grammar of English", Chapter 4, pages 59 -76.

Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, "A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language", sections 5.10 - 5.59 pages 253 - 287.

 

 
Post-modifiers Pre-deictics