INTRODUCTION: GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS AND SYSTEMS

In this course we shall be drawing on some of the key concepts of "functional" grammar. Functional grammar looks at how language works in terms of the functional relationships of its constituent parts, and the systems of CHOICES which we make whenever we use language.

The term "functional" is used because it describes the approach which sees grammatical categories in terms of their communicative functions. A convenient metaphor is that of a computer program, and we can think of language as being analagous to a program which provides the user with sets of alternative functional choices. When we start to run the program, the computer presents us with a "menu" of possible functions which the program can perform. The user then selects one of these functions, and this in turn will lead to further sets of options from which to choose.

Any piece of language is similarly formed by selecting from therange of possible options which exist, and such options are available at every point and level of organisation of language. For instance, in forming any utterance we must choose whether we wish to give it the form of a statement, question, exclamation,greeting etc. Returning to the computer program analogy, our opening menu might look something like this:

STATEMENT
QUESTION
EXCLAMATION
GREETING
REQUEST
COMMAND
PROHIBITION
SUGGESTION

This opening menu presents us with a list of some of the basic communicative functions which we use language to perform. If for example we choose to form a question, we then have a range of possible interrogative options in English, such as starting with a WH- word, or with the verb DO, or with some verbs by making inversions. Or we could simply let intonation and context do the job and retain the basic word order of a statement. These are all options which are available for forming questions, and when set together they constitute a systematically related set of functional choices.

Such choices are not arbitrary or whimsical, and we do in fact have good reasons for choosing one form instead of another. The particular form chosen will be determined by various stylistic and contextual factors such as whether the speaker is referring to new or given information, the degree of formality and politeness involved and so on.

Let's consider an example which will be familiar to any student of English - the English verb. There are two types of verb in English - main verbs (lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. These are distinguished in that auxiliaries can only be used in combination with a main verb, which will then have some inflexional form. This can be represented as follows:-

FIGURE 1.

This shows a set of features A / B where either one or the other must be selected. Only one can be selected, the other member or members of the same set thereby being excluded. If we choose A, main verb, then there is another set of options once A has been chosen, for the selection of tense. If we ignore for the moment the compound verb forms which may be created using the verbs "BE" and "HAVE", then there are two tenses in English (using only the main verb), the past and the present. We can represent this choice accordingly in the same way, where X and Y represent these two tense forms.

FIGURE 2.

Continuing with our `menu' analogy, we can say then that menu (1) features A / B, and menu (2) features X / Y, and that the selection of A in menu (1) constitutes the ENTRY CONDITION for menu (2). That is to say, if A is selected then either X or Y must be selected too.

In the class of auxiliary verbs, the modal verbs form a closed sub-set (their number is fixed and cannot be added to). These include CAN, COULD, MUST, MAY etc. They can only be used in combination with an inflexional form of a main verb. Thus we can say that the selection of one of these modal verbs is the entry condition to the set of inflexions applying to main verbs. If for the moment we ignore the possiblities of negative polarity, passive voicing and elliptical responses, then the system of inflexions for which the selection of a modal auxiliary is the entry condition can be represented as follows:-

FIGURE 3.

In the above representation, menu (1) is the system of modal verbs, selecting any one of which provides the entry condition to menu (2), which is the system of main verb inflexions which must accompany any selection from system (1). Menu (2) consists of three options, the base form of the main verb, the verb "BE" followed by the present participle of the main verb, or the verb "HAVE" followed by the past participle of the main verb. The latter form, which features the past participle, can in fact occur in two possible variations, so the selection of "HAVE" thus constitutes an entry condition to system (3), which selects between the two participle forms of the main verb.

The above description of the English verb system is of course simplified and only partial. We have disregarded other function choices, such as VOICE, which selects between active and passive, and MOOD, which selects between declarative, interrogative and imperative. This need not, however, undermine the description given above, for the additional information which further description of these functions would provide would augment our analysis rather than alter it, thereby making it more complete and comprehensive.

These further functions must be understood as operating simultaneously and in combination with the sort of features outlined above, ultimately forming a complex mesh of interdependent structures and relationships.

We shall in this course be exploring the nature of some of these relationships, and describing some of the key concepts in functional grammar which have proved most fruitful in exploring the nature of language.

Exercises

(1) The description of the tense system for main verbs in Figure 2 is of course incomplete. A number of other tense forms are created using the participle inflexions of the main verb in combination with the verbs BE and HAVE. Make a list of the various possibilities for combination (you probably know them as the continuous and perfect forms), and then see how a system network could be drawn up to represent the steps and options available to this system where the clause is in the active voice. The entry condition would be "operator" (i.e. "be" or "have").

e.g.

(2) The system of verb formation represented in Figure 3 is also incomplete in that it does not allow for passive forms. Prepare a diagram on similar lines to represent the options available for the realisation of the passive forms.